[Sn2S6]4- INTERCALATED LAYER DOUBLE HYDROXIDE AND METHOD OF PRODUCING THE SAME

ABSTRACT

A hybrid functionalized lamellar comprises a layered double hydroxide and [Sn 2 S 6 ] 4−  anions intercalated with the gallery of the layered double hydroxide to form a [Sn 2 S 6 ] 4−  intercalated layered double hydroxide.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Application No. 63/148,026 to Islam et al. filed on Feb. 10, 2021, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Contract MSIPP TOA/PO No. 0000456322 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

The present subject matter generally relates to [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layer double hydroxide and method of producing the same for treatment of heavy metals in water and other solutions.

BACKGROUND

Worldwide, currently more than one billion people lack access to clean and decontaminated drinking water. This leads to hundreds of millions of cases of water-related diseases and two to five million casualties each year. Among the different types of water contaminants, heavy metals pose severe concerns around the world because of their detrimental effects on humans and other biological systems. The rapid surge of industrialization, urbanization, mining, fossil fuel burning, as well as an exponential increase of the use of heavy metals, has resulted in their accelerated accumulation in freshwater in recent decades. Trace heavy metal cations such as mercury, lead, cadmium, silver, and copper commonly play a critical role in the contamination of water. Decontamination of water from these heavy metal ions is essential because of their severe cytotoxicity to biological systems including human health. Therefore, over the past decades, an intensive effort has been devoted to the development of techniques and sorbent materials for the remediation of trace heavy metal cations from wastewater.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION

Aspects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the following description, or may be obvious from the description, or may be learned through practice of the invention.

According to some aspects of the present disclosure, a hybrid functionalized lamellar comprises a layered double hydroxide and [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions intercalated with the gallery of the layered double hydroxide to form a [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide intercalated has a basal spacing of about 1 nm to about 1.10 nm.

According to some aspects of the present disclosure, a method of producing a [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide comprising steps of synthesizing MgAl-LDH-CO₃, synthesizing MgAl-LDH-NO₃ by the exchange of CO₃ ²⁻ anions by NO₃ anions, and synthesizing MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] by the exchange of NO₃ anions by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions.

These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present disclosure will become better understood with reference to the following description and appended claims. The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

A full and enabling disclosure of the present disclosure, including the best mode thereof, directed to one of ordinary skill in the art, is set forth in the specification, which makes reference to the appended figures.

FIG. 1 shows a schematic of the ion-exchange of NO₃ ⁻ with Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻ anions for the synthesis of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], the proposed concentration-dependent M^(n+) adsorption phenomena leading to the adsorption of M^(n+) into the interlayered gallery, and the regeneration of LDH-NO₃ with settlement of the neutral metal sulfides species outside the LDH gallery.

FIG. 2A shows an SEM image of the pristine LDH-NO₃.

FIG. 2B shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆].

FIG. 3A shows a graphical representation of XRD patterns of the LDH-CO₃, LDH-NO₃ and LDH-Sn₂S₆ showing the shift 003 and 006 peaks at lower Bragg angles with respect to the size of the intercalated anions of CO₃ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻ and Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻.

FIG. 3B shows a graphical representation of XPS of the LDH-NO₃ and LDH-[Sn₂S₆] confirm the presence tin and sulfur in the LDH-[Sn₂S₆].

FIG. 3C shows a graphical representation of a solid state optical absorption spectrum of light powder of LDH-[Sn₂S₆].

FIG. 4 shows a graphical representation of the Raman spectra of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O; LDH-Sn₂S₆ and the LDH-NO₃.

FIG. 5 shows a graphical representation of distribution constants, K_(d), versus pH for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ in acidic, alkaline, and neutral media.

FIG. 6A shows a graphical representation of a kinetic curve for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ depicting ion concentration change with contact time.

FIG. 6B shows a graphical representation of a kinetic curve for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ depicting removal % as a function of contact time.

FIG. 6C shows a graphical representation of a kinetic curve for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ depicting sorption capacity (q_(t)) with contact time.

FIG. 6D shows a graphical representation of a kinetic curve for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ depicting pseudo-second-order kinetic plots.

FIG. 7A shows a graphical representation of a sorption isotherm of Cu²⁺ at a pH of about 7 derived from experimental data fitted with a Langmuir model at equilibrium concentrations (Ce) and adsorption capacity (q_(m)).

FIG. 7B shows a graphical representation of a sorption isotherm of Ag⁺ at a pH of about 7 derived from experimental data fitted with a Langmuir model at equilibrium concentrations (Ce) and adsorption capacity (q_(m)).

FIG. 7C shows a graphical representation of sorption isotherms of Cd²⁺ at pH-7, derived from the experimental data fitted with Langmuir model at equilibrium concentrations (Ce) and adsorption capacity (q_(m)).

FIG. 7D shows a graphical representation of sorption isotherms of Pb²⁺ at pH-7, derived from the experimental data fitted with Langmuir model at equilibrium concentrations (Ce) and adsorption capacity (q_(m)).

FIG. 7E shows a graphical representation of sorption isotherms of Hg²⁺ at pH-7, derived from the experimental data fitted with Langmuir model at equilibrium concentrations (Ce) and adsorption capacity (q_(m)).

FIG. 8A shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 10 ppm of Cu²⁺.

FIG. 8B shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 10 ppm of Ag⁺.

FIG. 8C shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 10 ppm of Cd²⁺.

FIG. 8D shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 10 ppm of Pb²⁺.

FIG. 8E shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 10 ppm of Hg²⁺.

FIG. 9A shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 100 ppm of Cu²⁺.

FIG. 9B shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 100 ppm of Ag⁺.

FIG. 9C shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 100 ppm of Cd²⁺.

FIG. 9D shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 100 ppm of Pb²⁺.

FIG. 9E shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 100 ppm of Hg²⁺.

FIG. 10A shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 1500 ppm of Cu²⁺.

FIG. 10B shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 1500 ppm of Ag⁺.

FIG. 10C shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 1500 ppm of Cd²⁺.

FIG. 10D shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 1500 ppm of Pb²⁺.

FIG. 10E shows an SEM image of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], after the adsorption of 1500 ppm of Hg²⁺.

FIG. 11 shows a graphical representation of X-ray powder diffraction patterns of M^(n+) sorbed LDH-Sn₂S₆ at 100 ppm showing the presence of 003 and 006 planes of at 0.91 and 0.45 nm, meaning the regeneration of LDH-NO₃.

FIG. 12 shows a graphical representation of X-ray photoelectron spectra of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] after the adsorption of 100 ppm Cu²⁺.

FIG. 13 shows a graphical representation of X-ray photoelectron spectra of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] after the adsorption of 100 ppm Ag⁺.

FIG. 14 shows a graphical representation of X-ray photoelectron spectra of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] after the adsorption of 100 ppm Cd²⁺.

FIG. 15 shows a graphical representation of X-ray photoelectron spectra of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] after the adsorption of 100 ppm Pb²⁺.

FIG. 16 shows a graphical representation of X-ray photoelectron spectra of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] after the adsorption of 100 ppm Hg²⁺.

FIG. 17A shows a graphical representation of concurrent adsorption kinetics curves of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ obtained in a tap water solution sample.

FIG. 17B shows a graphical representation of concurrent adsorption kinetics curves of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ obtained in a Mississippi River water sample.

FIG. 18 shows a graphical representation of the removal rates heavy metals from a mixture of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ from aqueous solutions in five consecutive cycles.

Repeat use of reference characters in the present specification and drawings is intended to represent the same or analogous features or elements of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Reference will now be made in detail to present embodiments of the invention, one or more examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. The detailed description uses numerical and letter designations to refer to features in the drawings. Like or similar designations in the drawings and description have been used to refer to like or similar parts of the invention.

As used herein, the terms “first,” “second,” and “third” may be used interchangeably to distinguish one component from another and are not intended to signify location or importance of the individual components. The terms “coupled,” “fixed,” “attached to,” and the like refer to both direct coupling, fixing, or attaching, as well as indirect coupling, fixing, or attaching through one or more intermediate components or features, unless otherwise specified herein.

The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

Approximating language, as used herein throughout the specification and claims, is applied to modify any quantitative representation that could permissibly vary without resulting in a change in the basic function to which it is related. Accordingly, a value modified by a term or terms, such as “about,” “approximately,” “generally,” and “substantially,” is not to be limited to the precise value specified. In at least some instances, the approximating language may correspond to the precision of an instrument for measuring the value, or the precision of the methods or apparatus for constructing or manufacturing the components and/or systems. For example, the approximating language may refer to being within a ten percent margin.

Moreover, the technology of the present application will be described with relation to exemplary embodiments. The word “exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example, instance, or illustration.” Any embodiment described herein as “exemplary” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other embodiments. Additionally, unless specifically identified otherwise, all embodiments described herein should be considered exemplary.

Here and throughout the specification and claims, range limitations are combined and interchanged, such ranges are identified and include all the sub-ranges contained therein unless context or language indicates otherwise. For example, all ranges disclosed herein are inclusive of the endpoints, and the endpoints are independently combinable with each other.

As used herein, the term “and/or,” when used in a list of two or more items, means that any one of the listed items can be employed by itself, or any combination of two or more of the listed items can be employed. For example, if a composition or assembly is described as containing components A, B, and/or C, the composition or assembly can contain A alone; B alone; C alone; A and B in combination; A and C in combination; B and C in combination; or A, B, and C in combination.

The present disclosure is generally directed to a hybrid functionalized lamellar MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] (also referred to herein as LDH-[Sn₂S₆]) and a method for synthesizing the same. The intercalation of [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ into the gallery of MgAl-LDH may increase the effectiveness for the removal of heavy metal ions such as Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Hg²⁺ from aqueous solutions. As discussed elsewhere herein, use of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] may reduce the content of these heavy metal ions to contents below the WHO limit for drinking water. The extremely high sorption efficiencies, widespread selectivity, ultrafast sorption kinetics, wide range of pH stability, and reusability of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] makes this material a promising sorbent for industrial-scale use for the decontamination of heavy metal polluted water.

The chemical formula of the hybrid functionalized lamellar is

Mg²⁺ _(1−x)Al³⁺ _(x)OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(y).0.8H₂O (x=0.1-0.9;y=0.01-0.6).

It will be understood that, within the chemical formula provided, either Mg²⁺ may be fully or partially substituted by Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zu²⁺, Eu₂₊, Ag⁺ or Al³⁺ may be fully or partially substituted by M³⁺=Al³⁺, V³⁺, Ti³⁺, Cr³⁺, Ga³⁺, Fe³⁺, Ni³⁺, Co³⁺, Sb³⁺, Bi³⁺, Eu³⁺, Sc³⁺. It will also be understood that, where either Mg²⁺ or Al³⁺ has been fully or partially substituted as described, [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ can be partially or fully substituted by [Sn₄S₁₀]⁴⁻, [Sn₄S₉]²⁻, [Sn₃S₇.½S₈]²⁻, [SnS₁₄]²⁻, [Ge₂S₆]⁴⁻, [Ge₄S₁₀]⁴⁻, [Sn(Zn₄Sn₄S₁₇)]⁶⁻, [Fe₂S₂(S₅)₂]²⁻, [S₅Fe(MoS₂)]²⁻, Ti₂S₁₄ ⁴⁻, [CuS₄]⁻, [CuS₆]⁻, [SbS₆]⁻, [M₄Sn₄S₁₇]¹⁰⁻, (M=Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Zn²⁺), [Sb₆S₁₇]⁶⁻, [Sb₄S₈]²⁻, [moS(S₄)₂]²⁻, [Mo₃S(S₂)₆]²⁻, [Mo₂(S₂)₂(S₂)₄]²⁻, [Mo₂S₂(S₂)₂]²⁻, [Mo₂S₆(S₄)]²⁻, and [Mo₂S₄(S₄)₂]²⁻.

The method for synthesizing the hybrid functionalized lamellar MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] (LDH-[Sn₂S₆]) includes a step of synthesizing MgAl-LDH-CO₃ (also referred to herein LDH-CO₃). In detail, to synthesize LDH-CO₃, a mixture of about 3.21 g Mg(NO₃)₂.6H₂O (0.0125 mol), about 2.34 g Al(NO₃)₃.9H₂O (0.006 mol), and about 2.28 g hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) are dissolved in about 50 mL deionized water (DIW).

Subsequently, the solution is hydrothermally treated at about 140° C. for about 24 hours in a hydrothermal autoclave reactor (e.g., a Teflon-autoclave). The as-prepared white precipitate of MgAl—CO₃-LDH (LDH-CO₃) is filtered, washed with DIW, and then dried under vacuum.

Another step may include synthesizing MgAl—NO₃-LDH (also referred to herein as LDH-NO₃) by the exchange of CO₃ ²⁻ by NO₃ ⁻. Specifically, to synthesize LDH-NO₃, about 127.5 g NaNO₃ and about 0.36 mL HNO₃ (65%-68%) are dissolved in about 1000 mL of DIW. Then, about 0.8 g of MgAl-LDH-CO₃ powder is added. The as-prepared mixture is sealed (e.g., the mixture may be sealed with Teflon) and is stirred for about 24 hours at room temperature. The resulting white solids are filtered, washed with DIW, and then vacuum-dried for about 24 hours.

The method may further include steps of obtaining white crystals of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O from a solution of about 14.4 g Na₂S.9H₂O and about 5.2 g SnCl₄.5H₂O in a refrigerator; filtering and washing the crystals of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O with acetone; and vacuum drying the crystals for about 24 hours. The [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions of the Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O are exchanged with NO₃ ⁻ of the LDH-NO₃ to synthesize the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] in accordance with the equation:

Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(NO₃)_(0.34).0.8H₂O+0.085Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O→Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(0.085).0.8H₂O+0.34NaNO₃

Another step may include synthesizing LDH-[Sn₂S₆] from LDH-NO₃. To synthesize LDH-[Sn₂S₆], about 0.25 g of LDH-NO₃ and about 0.75 g of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O are dispersed in about 50 mL DIW. The mixture is then stirred at ambient condition for about 24 hours, leading to the formation of a yellowish solution of suspended particles. Filtration is performed to obtain the yellow solids from the solution. After filtration, the yellow solids are then washed with ethanol and dried at room temperature (RT) and pressure. The resulting LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is synthesized at room temperature and pressure and is stable in air and water. LDH-[Sn₂S₆] has a chemical formula Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(0.085).0.8H₂O. The molecular weight of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is 110 g based on the chemical formula with a contribution from the Sn₂S₆ moiety of 36.53 g/mol.

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of an ion-exchange of NO₃ ⁻ with Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻ anions for the synthesis of LDH-[Sn₂S₆], the proposed concentration-dependent M^(n+) adsorption phenomena leading to the adsorption of M^(n+) into the interlayered gallery, and the regeneration of LDH-NO₃ with settlement of the neutral metal sulfides species outside the LDH gallery.

EXAMPLES

The uptake (e.g., sorption) of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions of various concentrations of Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ were performed at ambient conditions. The sorption experiments of the following examples were conducted using batch methods where the solid adsorbent, LDH-[Sn₂S₆], was mixed with the solutions of heavy metals for a certain time limit under vigorous stirring. After a certain period of interaction, the suspensions were centrifuged and the supernatant solutions were analyzed for the heavy metals using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The adsorption efficiencies were calculated from the difference in the concentration of the metal cations before and after sorption.

The distribution coefficient (K_(d)) in adsorption experiments was used to determine the affinity of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] for heavy metals. The K_(d) is defined by the equation: K_(d)=(V[(C₀−C_(f))/C_(f)])/m; where V is the solution volume (mL), Co and C_(f) correspond to the initial and the final concentrations of the metal cations, M^(n+) (M^(n+)=Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺) in ppm (mg/L), and m is the mass of the solid sorbent (g). The removal rate of M^(n+) was computed using the equation of 100×(C₀−C_(f))/C₀. The removal capacity, q_(m) (mg/g) can be obtained from the equation: 10⁻³×(C₀−C_(f)) V/m. The adsorption experiments were carried out with V: m ratios of 1000 mL/g, at RT, and at different time scales ranging from min to several h.

Comparative Example 1

For comparison to sorption results from Example 2 and detailed in Table 1B discussed below, an uptake study of the heavy metal ions (M^(n+)=Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺) was conducted using the batch method at ambient conditions with LDH-NO₃ as the sorbent. About 10 mg of LDH-NO₃ sorbent material was suspended into solutions of M^(n+). The initial concentration of each of the ions was 10 ppm or 10×10³ ppb. The contact time was about three hours. The volume of the solution was about 10 mL with a pH of about 7. The mass of the solid sample for the experiment was about 0.010 grams such that the V/m ration of the sample was about 1000 mL/g. The supernatant solutions were analyzed by ICP-MS to determine the remaining concentrations of M^(n+) after adsorption by LDH-NO₃. Results of the adsorption study of the affinity of LDH-NO₃ toward each of the eight exemplary heavy metal ions are detailed in Table 1A below. The results of Table 1A are labeled according to the single ion being tested.

TABLE 1A Initial Final (pre-adsorption) (post-adsorption) M^(n+) concentration concentration removal K_(d) Ions (C_(i)) (ppm) (C_(f)) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) Co²⁺ 10.00 9.81 1.86 1.90 × 10¹ Ni²⁺ 10.00 9.84 1.56 1.58 × 10¹ Zn²⁺ 10.00 9.81 1.88 1.91 × 10¹ Cu²⁺ 10.00 7.40 26.02 3.52 × 10² Ag⁺ 10.00 7.65 23.51 3.07 × 10² Cd²⁺ 10.00 8.74 12.60 1.44 × 10² Pb²⁺ 10.00 7.85 21.47 2.73 × 10² Hg²⁺ 10.00 7.82 21.80 2.79 × 10²

Example 1

To confirm the intercalation of [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions into the gallery of MgAl-LDH the as-synthesized material was characterized by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and solid-state UV/Vis optical reflectance. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy showed the presence of Sn and S in addition to Mg and Al in the LDH-Sn₂S₆. An average atomic abundance of Sn and S was determined at about 5.17% and about 15.90%, respectively, which is equivalent to a Sn:S ratio of about 1.0:3.08. This value is close to that expected for Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observations provide evidence of the retention of the plate like morphology even after the ion-exchange of the LDH-NO₃ with [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ shown in FIG. 1. This kind of retention of the morphology after the metal sulfides anion exchange was also observed for polysulfides, S_(x) and MoS₄ ²⁻ intercalated LDH. SEM images of the pristine LDH-NO₃ (FIG. 2A) and LDH-[Sn₂S₆] (FIG. 2B) show well crystalline plate-like morphology of the crystallites.

The evidence of the intercalation of [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ into the layers of LDH was further investigated by XRD. A comparable feature of the XRD patterns of CO₃ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻, and [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated LDH is illustrated in FIG. 3A showing the shift 003 and 006 peaks at lower Bragg angles with respect to the size of the intercalated anions of CO₃ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻ and Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻. The ion-exchange of CO₃ ²⁻ by NO₃ ⁻, and subsequently by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ led to a shift of the LDH's basal spacing (d_(basal)) from about 0.74 nm to about 0.91 to about 1.08 nm, respectively. In other words, basal, the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide intercalated has a basal spacing of about 1 nm to about 1.10 nm. Such an increase in the basal spacing is due to the expansion of the unit cell parameter along the 00l crystallographic plane. Such an enlargement of the unit cell is in agreement with the intercalation of larger [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions into the LDH. Intercalation of the [Sn₂S₆] into the LDH led to the color change of the samples from white (LDH-NO₃) to yellow (LDH-[5n2S₆]). Solid-state optical absorption spectroscopy reveals that LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is a wide band gap semiconductor with an energy of ˜3.0 eV, as shown in FIG. 3C. FIG. 3C further illustrates the optical bandgap energy for LDH-[Sn₂S₆].

The ion-exchange of the nitrate by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ was further confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, as shown in FIG. 4. A comparable feature of the Raman spectra of Na₄Sn₂S₆, LDH-[NO₃], and LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is shown in FIG. 4 and shows the intercalation of Sn₂S₆ in the nitrate LDH. For the pristine Na₄Sn₂S₆, a series of vibrational bands were assigned at 163 cm⁻¹ (Na—S), 248 cm⁻¹ (Na—S), 355 cm⁻¹ (Sn—S) with the Sn—S band being the strongest. For LDH-[Sn₂S₆], a strong band centered at 325 cm⁻¹ is present while this peak is completely absent in the LDH-[NO₃]. This further validates the incorporation of [Sn₂S₆] anions into the LDH. However, a slight shift of the bands can be attributed to the different chemical interactions of Sn₂S₆ anions with positively charged LDH layers. The 1062 and 772 cm⁻¹ bands in LDH-NO₃ are completely absent in the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] demonstrating the complete ion-exchange. In addition, bands at about 180 and 555 cm⁻¹ for the LDH-[NO₃] and LDH-[Sn₂S₆] can be assigned as (M-O) and (OH-M), respectively. A small shift in the vibrational energy can be demonstrated as the chemical impact of the different anions.

As shown in FIG. 3B, XPS of the LDH-NO₃ and LDH-[Sn₂S₆] confirm the presence tin and sulfur in the LDH-[Sn₂S₆]. The XPS spectra of the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] also revealed the existence of Sn and S with intense bands corresponding to binding energy (BEs) ranges of about 157 eV to about 163 eV and about 482 eV to about 495 eV, respectively. The bands at about 485.4 eV and about 493.8 eV are consistent with the 3d_(3/2) and 3d_(5/2) energy levels of Se. The splitting of the 3d energy band of Se is due to the presence of strong spin-orbital coupling. In addition, the BE of the bands at about 158.2 eV, about 159.5 eV, about 160.3 eV, and about 161.5 eV suggest the presence of S²⁻ ions in the LDH-[Sn₂S₆]. The two sets of S²⁻ peaks may be indicative of the different chemical interactions of S²⁻ with the LDH layer hydroxides, such as by Sn—S . . . HO hydrogen bonding involving the hydroxide ions of the LDH layers. The binding energies of the Sn 3d and S 2p show the presence of the Sn⁴⁺ and S²⁻ oxidation states of [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ confirming its presence in the LDH structure. Photoelectron bands at about 89.2 eV and about 74.4 eV for LDH-NO₃ represent Mg 2s and Al 2p, respectively. In contrast, LDH-Sn₂S₆ displays Mg 2s and Al 2p at about 86.6 eV and about 73.4 eV, respectively. This, as well as the results detailed in Example 2 below, illustrates that the metal sulfide functionalized LDH (LDH-Sn₂S₆) exhibits superior heavy metal remediation properties as compared to the oxoanion intercalated LDH (LDH-NO₃).

Example 2

The uptake study of the heavy metal ions (M^(n+)=Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺) was conducted using the batch method at ambient conditions. To determine the affinity of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] toward the M^(n+) cations, about 10 mg of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] sorbent material was suspended into solutions of M^(n+). The initial concentration of each of the ions was 10 ppm or 10×10³ ppb. The contact time was about three hours. The volume of the solution was about 10 mL with a pH of about 7. The mass of the solid sample for the experiment was about 0.010 grams such that the V/m ration of the sample was about 1000 mL/g. The supernatant solutions were analyzed by ICP-MS to determine the remaining concentrations of M^(n+) after adsorption by LDH-[Sn₂S₆]. The batch method experiments were run five times for each ion listed in Table 1B below. An average of the results of the five runs of the adsorption study of the affinity of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] toward each of the eight exemplary heavy metal ions are detailed in Table 1B below. The results of Table 1B are labeled according to the single ion being tested.

TABLE 1B Initial Final (pre-adsorption) (post-adsorption) M^(n+) concentration concentration removal K_(d) Ions (C_(i)) (ppb) (C_(f)) (ppb) (%) (mL/g) Co²⁺ 10 × 10³ 9.5 × 10³ 4.55 4.76 × 10¹ Ni²⁺ 10 × 10³ 9.4 × 10³ 6.01 6.40 × 10¹ Zn²⁺ 10 × 10³ 0.62 × 10³  93.79 1.51 × 10⁴ Cu²⁺ 10 × 10³ 4.4 99.96 2.27 × 10⁶ Ag⁺ 10 × 10³ 1.3 99.99 7.69 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 × 10³ 1.0 99.99  1.0 × 10⁷ Pb²⁺ 10 × 10³ 2.0 99.98  5.0 × 10⁶ Hg²⁺ 10 × 10³ 1.0 99.99  1.0 × 10⁷

As seen in Table 1B, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] can adsorb over 99.9% of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ from 10 ppm (mg/L) solutions of each cation. Such outstanding removal of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ yielded final concentrations of about 4 ppb of Cu²⁺, about 1 ppb of Ag⁺, about 1 ppb of Cd²⁺, about 2 ppb of Pb²⁺, and about 1 ppb of Hg²⁺, which are all well below US, EPA, and WHO limits for drinking water. Moreover, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] exhibits a distribution constant (K_(d)) of about 10⁴ mL/g for Zn²⁺ and greater than 10⁶ mL/g for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺. K_(d) represents the affinity of a sorbent toward a species, and a value of ≥10⁴ mL/g is considered outstanding. Hence, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] with such an excellent removal capacity, unprecedented selectivity toward a large number cations (Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺) and outstanding K_(d) place this material as a top candidate for the sorption of heavy metals from aqueous solutions.

Example 3

To determine the selective affinity and the competitive sorption of trace heavy metal cations, a solution that contained M^(n+)=Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺ p, Zn²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ together, which is referred to as mixed-ion states, was used. A solution of 10 ppm for each of eight cations results in a total concentration of 80 ppm. About 10 mg of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] sorbents were suspended into the mixed-ion states solution. The sorption experiment was conducted at pH about 7 for a contact time of about three hours. The volume of the solution was about 10 mL. The mass of the solid sample for the experiment was about 0.010 grams such that the V/m ration of the sample was about 1000 mL/g. Results of the adsorption study of the affinity of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] toward each of the eight exemplary heavy metal ions in the mixed-ion states solution are detailed in Table 2 below.

As shown in Table 2, even in the presence of mixed-competing ions, the affinity and the removal capacity of the sorbent was as high as for the individual cations Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺. The final concentrations of each of these cations was as low as about 5 ppb. In other words, the removal capacity of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] in the mixed-ion states is over 99.9%, and K_(d) values reach about 10⁶ mL/g for each of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Hg²⁺. At these concentrations, the selectivity order for these ions was Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺<<Ag⁺, Cu²⁺<Hg²⁺<Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺. This indicates that LDH-[Sn₂S₆] exhibits concurrent removal of a large number of heavy metals ions (Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺), excellent K_(d) values, and ultrahigh removal capacity.

TABLE 2 Pre-adsorption Post-adsorption M^(n+) Mixed- concentration concentration removal K_(d) ions (C_(i)) (ppm) (C_(f)) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) Co²⁺ 10 9.91 0.90 0.91 × 10² Ni²⁺ 10 9.90 1.00 1.01 × 10¹ Zn²⁺ 10 9.45 5.50 5.82 × 10¹ Cu²⁺ 10 0.005 99.95 2.00 × 10⁶ Ag⁺ 10 0.005 99.95 2.00 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 0.001 99.99 1.00 × 10⁷ Pb²⁺ 10 0.001 99.99 1.00 × 10⁷ Hg²⁺ 10 0.004 99.96 2.50 × 10⁶

A comparison of the adsorption data for the individual and mixed cation experiments of Example 3 demonstrates that at neutral pH, LDH-Sn₂S₆ is similarly effective in both systems for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺. However, the results of Example 3 show the adsorption of Zn²⁺ dropped from about 94% (K_(d)˜1.5×10⁴) to about 6% (5.5×10¹ mL/g) from the individual to mixed cations systems. This may suggest that the Zn²⁺ cations are less selective for the LDH-Sn₂S₆. This could be due to its higher chemical hardness and thus lower affinity for the chemically soft and polarizable sulfide anions. Overall, the sorption efficiencies indicated by the results of Example 3 establish LDH-[Sn₂S₆] as a highly promising adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from complex samples, such as wastewater treatment.

Example 4

The adsorption of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] was also tested at pH ranging from about 2 to about 12 to determine the stability as well as the sorption efficiencies for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ ions. This experiment was conducted using 3 hour interactions between cation solutions sorbents. The volume of the solution was about 10 mL, and the mass of the solid sample for the experiment was about 0.010 grams such that the V/m ration of the sample was about 1000 mL/g. Results for this experiment are detailed in Table 3 below.

As shown in FIG. 5, which illustrates the distribution constants, K_(d), relative to the pH of the samples of experiments of Example 4, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] can efficiently capture these cations within the pH range of about 2 to about 12. The graph of FIG. 5 illustrates the sorption efficiencies of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ in acidic, alkaline, and neutral media.

A detailed analysis of the results of Example 4 shows that LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is the most efficient at adsorption of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ ions at a pH of about 7. At this pH, it achieves ≥99.9% removal of each cation with K_(d) values >10⁶ mL/g. At a pH of about 2, K_(d) values for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, and Pb²⁺ decrease about one order of magnitude, and their removal rates decrease to about 99.7, about 99.5, and about 99.0%, respectively. In contrast, K_(d) values remain >10⁷ mL/g for Hg²⁺ in the pH range of about 2 to about 7. The K_(d) and removal rate for Cd²⁺ remain at about 10⁶ mL/g and >99.9%, respectively, over the pH range of about 2 to about 12. At a pH of about 12, Example 4 yielded similar results for the absorption of Cu²⁺ and Ag⁺ (about 99.0% with K_(d) values of about 10⁵ mL/g). The removal rate of Hg²⁺ remains over 99.9% in the pH range of about 2 to about 9 but decreases to about 72% at a pH of about 12. The removal rate of Pb²⁺ varies from about 99% (K_(d)˜10⁵ mL/g) at a pH of about 2 to about 33% (K_(d)˜5.2×10² mL/g) at a pH of about 12. The decreased removal rates of Pb²⁺ and Hg²⁺ at higher pH may be related to the gradual hydrolysis of the LDH. In contrast, the higher removal of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, and Cd²⁺ at a pH of about 12 may be a co-operative effect of both the adsorption and metal hydroxide precipitation. The high removal capacities and remarkably high distribution constants shown in Example 4 reveal LDH-[Sn₂S₆] as an excellent sorbent for the adsorption of heavy metals ions from acidic, alkaline, and neutral wastewater.

TABLE 3 Pre-adsorption Post-adsorption M^(n+) Single concentration concentration removal K_(d) ions pH (C_(i)) (ppm) (C_(f)) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) Cu²⁺ pH 2 10 0.0289 99.71 3.45 × 10⁵ pH 4 10 0.0273 99.73 3.65 × 10⁵ pH 7 10 0.0049 99.95 2.05 × 10⁶ pH 9 10 0.0535 99.47 1.86 × 10⁵ pH 12 10 0.0754 99.25 1.32 × 10⁵ Ag⁺ pH 2 10 0.0523 99.48 1.90 × 10⁵ pH 4 10 0.0466 99.53 2.14 × 10⁵ pH 7 10 0.0014 99.99 7.14 × 10⁶ pH 9 10 0.0522 99.48 1.91 × 10⁵ pH 12 10 0.0545 99.46 1.82 × 10⁵ Cd²⁺ pH 2 10 0.0038 99.96 2.63 × 10⁶ pH 4 10 0.0035 99.97 2.86 × 10⁶ pH 7 10 0.0012 99.99 8.69 × 10⁶ pH 9 10 0.0033 99.97 3.22 × 10⁶ pH 12 10 0.0031 99.97 3.03 × 10⁶ Pb²⁺ pH 2 10 0.0970 99.03 1.02 × 10⁵ pH 4 10 0.0625 99.38 1.59 × 10⁵ pH 7 10 0.0020 99.98 5.10 × 10⁶ pH 9 10 0.0766 99.23 1.30 × 10⁵ pH 12 10 6.6574 33.43 5.02 × 10² Hg²⁺ pH 2 10 0.0003 ~100.00 3.33 × 10⁷ pH 4 10 0.00028 ~100.00 3.57 × 10⁷ pH 7 10 0.0002 ~100.00  5.0 × 10⁷ pH 9 10 0.0009 99.91 1.11 × 10⁶ pH 12 10 2.7728 72.27 2.61 × 10³

Example 5

For comparison with the experimental data of the previous examples, the kinetics for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ adsorption by LDH-[Sn₂S₆] were calculated to determine adsorption rates and understand the adsorption mechanism until it reaches equilibrium. In general, the adsorption rate is determined by two different rate equations, known as pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order mechanisms. These mechanisms were used to analyze the adsorption phenomena of the LDH-[Sn₂S₆]. The comparison was then drawn between the experimental and calculated data. The two kinetic rate equations used are as follows:

Pseudo-First-Order:

ln(q _(e) −q _(t))=ln q _(e) −k ₁ t

Pseudo-Second-Order:

? ?indicates text missing or illegible when filed

Where, q_(e) (mg/g) is the amount of adsorbed element per unit mass of adsorbent at equilibrium and q_(t) (mg/g) is the adsorbed amount at time t, while k₁ (min⁻¹) and k₂ (g/mg min⁻¹) are rate constants of pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order adsorption interactions, respectively. The k₁ value was obtained by plotting ln(q_(e)−q_(t)) against t and k₂ by plotting t/q_(t) against t (FIG. 6D).

Table 4 below details the kinetics data of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ adsorption using LDH-[Sn₂S₆] where the solution had a volume of about 10 mL, the mass of the solid sample for the experiment was about 0.010 grams such that the V/m ration of the sample was about 1000 mL/g, and the pH was about 7.

As shown in FIGS. 6A-6D and in Table 4, within about 5 minutes, the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] sorbent material achieved about 99.9% removal of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ with K_(d) values of over 10⁵ mL/g for each cation. The removal capacity and K_(d) reached about 100% and >10⁶ mL/g, respectively, for all five cations within about 1 hour. Overall, these experiments revealed that the adsorption for all five cations reaches equilibrium in only about 5 minutes. A similar trend in the adsorption kinetics was observed for Hg²⁺ by LDH-MoS₄, and for Hg²⁺, Ag⁺, and Pb²⁺ by polypyrrole-MoS₄.

A plot of t/q_(t) against t, as shown in FIG. 6D, illustrated a linear relationship for all five cations. The kinetic parameters for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ are summarized in Table 5 below. The calculated sorption capacities (q_(e,cal)) derived from pseudo-second-order model are close to corresponding experimental values (q_(e,exp)). The goodness of fit parameter (R²), is close to unity for all the cations. This indicates that adsorption for these ions onto LDH-[Sn₂S₆] follows pseudo-second-order kinetics, suggesting that the adsorption follows chemisorption pathways.

TABLE 4 Pre- Post- adsorption adsorption concen- concen- tration tration M^(n+) Time (C_(i)) (C_(f)) removal K_(d) q_(t) Ions (min) (ppm) (ppm) % (mL/g) (mg/g) Cu²⁺ 5 10 0.01488 99.85 6.71 × 10⁵ 9.985 15 10 0.00469 99.95 2.13 × 10⁶ 9.995 30 10 0.00398 99.96 2.51 × 10⁶ 9.996 60 10 0.00314 99.97 3.18 × 10⁶ 9.997 180 10 0.00218 99.98 4.59 × 10⁶ 9.998 Ag⁺ 5 10 0.00120 99.99 8.33 × 10⁶ 9.999 15 10 0.00087 99.99 1.15 × 10⁷ 9.999 30 10 0.00074 99.99 1.35 × 10⁷ 9.999 60 10 0.00059 99.99 1.69 × 10⁷ 9.999 180 10 0.00042 ~100 2.38 × 10⁷ 10.000 Cd²⁺ 5 10 0.00157 99.98 6.37 × 10⁶ 9.998 15 10 0.00197 99.98 5.08 × 10⁶ 9.998 30 10 0.00191 99.98 5.23 × 10⁶ 9.998 60 10 0.00105 99.99 9.52 × 10⁶ 9.999 180 10 0.00096 99.99 1.04 × 10⁷ 9.999 Pb²⁺ 5 10 0.00183 99.98 5.46 × 10⁶ 9.998 15 10 0.00163 99.98 6.13 × 10⁶ 9.998 30 10 0.00148 99.99 6.76 × 10⁶ 9.999 60 10 0.00126 99.99 7.94 × 10⁶ 9.999 180 10 0.00068 99.99 1.47 × 10⁷ 9.999 Hg²⁺ 5 10 0.00232 99.98 4.31 × 10⁶ 9.998 15 10 0.00313 99.97 3.19 × 10⁶ 9.997 30 10 0.00055 99.99 1.82 × 10⁷ 9.999 60 10 0.00072 99.99 1.39 × 10⁷ 9.999 180 10 0.00053 99.99 1.89 × 10⁷ 9.999

TABLE 5 Ions q_(e, exp) k₂ q_(e, cal) R² Cu²⁺ 9.998 16.32 9.9991 1 Ag⁺ 10.0 38.46 10.0 1 Cd²⁺ 9.999 699.37 9.999 1 Pb²⁺ 9.999 38.03 9.999 1 Hg²⁺ 9.999 2.87 9.999 1

Example 6

To determine the maximum sorption capacity of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺, an adsorption equilibrium study was carried out over a concentration ranging from about 10 ppm to about 1500 ppm. Results of the study of Example 6 are detailed below in Table 6. As shown in FIGS. 7A-7E, the results of this Example 6 reveal increasing adsorption with increasing concentrations of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ before reaching equilibrium.

FIGS. 7A-7E illustrate sorption isotherms of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺, respectively, at a pH of about 7. The isotherms were derived from the experimental data fitted with Langmuir model at equilibrium concentrations (Ce) and adsorption capacity (q_(m)). This model predicts that adsorbate moieties undergo monolayer type coverage on the surface of the adsorbent. It assumes that once an adsorption site is occupied, no further adsorption can occur at the same site. The Langmuir isotherm model is shown as equation:

q = q_(m)? ?indicates text missing or illegible when filed

Where Ce (mg/L) is the concentration at equilibrium, q (mg/g) is the equilibrium sorption capacity of the adsorbed M^(n+) (Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺), q_(m) (mg/g) is the theoretical maximum sorption capacity, b (L·mg⁻¹) is the Langmuir constant, and Ce (mg/L) is the equilibrium concentration. The correlation coefficient, R² was ≥0.98 for Cu²⁺, 0.93 for Ag⁺, 0.98 for Hg²⁺, 0.95 for Cd²⁺, and 0.98 for Pb²⁺ suggesting a good fit with the Langmuir model, as shown in FIGS. 7A-7E.

TABLE 6 Pre- Post- adsorption adsorption concen- concen- tration tration Removal K_(d) q_(m) Ions (C_(i)) (ppm) (C_(f)) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) (mg/g) Cu²⁺ 10 0.003 99.97 3.33 × 10⁶ 1.00 × 10¹ 50 14.91 70.16 2.35 × 10³ 3.51 × 10¹ 100 49.29 50.71 1.03 × 10³ 5.07 × 10¹ 300 200.94 33.02 4.93 × 10² 9.91 × 10¹ 500 300.32 35.94 6.65 × 10² 1.80 × 10² 700 460.54 34.21 5.20 × 10² 2.39 × 10² 1000 722.08 27.79 3.85 × 10² 2.78 × 10² 1500 1122.32 25.18 3.37 × 10² 3.78 × 10² Ag⁺ 10 0.001 99.99 1.00 × 10⁷ 1.00 × 10¹ 50 0.029 99.94 1.72 × 10⁶ 5.00 × 10¹ 100 0.063 99.94 1.59 × 10⁶ 9.99 × 10¹ 300 0.179 99.94 1.67 × 10⁶ 3.00 × 10² 500 30.708 93.86 1.53 × 10⁴ 4.69 × 10² 700 140.356 79.95 3.99 × 10³ 6.69 × 10² 1000 309.948 69.01 2.23 × 10³ 6.90 × 10² 1500 521.922 65.21 1.87 × 10³ 9.78 × 10² Cd⁺² 10 0.001 99.99 1.00 × 10⁷ 1.00 × 10¹ 50 0.238 99.52 2.09 × 10⁵ 4.98 × 10¹ 300 165.637 44.79 8.11 × 10² 1.34 × 10² 500 309.518 38.10 6.15 × 10² 1.90 × 10² 700 453.480 35.22 5.44 × 10² 2.47 × 10² 1000 688.292 31.17 4.53 × 10² 3.12 × 10² 1500 1168.092 22.13 2.84 × 10² 3.32 × 10² Pb⁺² 10 0.002 99.98 5.00 × 10⁶ 1.00 × 10¹ 50 0.009 99.98 5.88 × 10⁶ 5.00 × 10¹ 300 188.3 37.23 5.93 × 10² 1.12 × 10² 700 318.064 54.56 1.20 × 10³ 3.82 × 10² 1000 504.156 49.58 9.84 × 10² 4.96 × 10² 1500 921.496 38.57 6.28 × 10² 5.79 × 10² Hg⁺² 10 0.001 99.99 9.90 × 10⁶ 1.00 × 10¹ 50 0.012 99.98 4.17 × 10⁶ 5.00 × 10¹ 100 0.038 99.96 2.63 × 10⁵ 1.00 × 10² 300 0.210 99.93 1.43 × 10⁵ 3.00 × 10² 500 0.396 99.92 1.26 × 10⁵ 5.00 × 10² 700 90.140 87.12 6.77 × 10³ 6.10 × 10² 1000 357.432 64.26 1.80 × 10² 6.43 × 10² 1500 833.538 44.43 8.00 × 10² 6.66 × 10²

As detailed in Table 6 and shown in FIG. 7A, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] achieved a maximum adsorption capacity of about 378 mg/g for Cu²⁺. Additionally, as shown in FIG. 7B, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] exhibits ultra-high removal of Ag⁺ over a wide range of initial concentrations (10 to 300 ppm). For the entire concentration range, the sorption of Ag⁺ remains over 99.9% with K_(d) ^(Ag) values of over 10⁵ mL/g. The maximum adsorption capacity for Ag⁺ (q_(m) ^(A)g) reached a value of 978 mg/g. Over 99% of Cd²⁺ was removed by LDH-[Sn₂S₆] for concentrations up to 50 ppm with K_(d) ^(Cd) values in the range of about 10⁴ to about 10⁶ mL/g. The maximum adsorption capacity obtained was 332 mg/g. A similar removal rate (99.9%) was found for Pb²⁺ for concentrations up to 50 ppm. The maximum capture capacity achieved for Pb²⁺ (579 mg/g) was recorded for a 1500 ppm spiked solution.

As detailed in Table 6, the adsorption capacity of Hg²⁺ for a solution of about 10 ppm to about 1500 ppm was also considered. LDH-[Sn₂S₆] was shown to remove ≥99.9% of Hg²⁺ from a 500 ppm solution. At concentrations from 10 to 500 ppm, the K_(d) ^(H)g values remain in the range of about 10⁵ mL/g to about 10⁶ mL/g. The maximum Hg²⁺ removal capacity exhibited by LDH-[Sn₂S₆] was about 666 mg/g. is higher than any known adsorbents.

Table 7 below details the comparative values of the adsorption capacities of known high performing sorbents for each of the heavy metal ions. As seen in Table 7, metal sulfide or polysulfide intercalated LDHs, such as LDH-MoS₄ and LDH-S_(x) (x=2-4) are currently used options for the adsorption of heavy metal cations. Compared to other metal sulfide or polysulfide intercalated LDHs, LDH-Sn₂S₆ exhibits the largest interlayer spacing that could facilitate the facile diffusion of cations into the interlayer spaces to result in the increased adsorption shown in this Example 6. With the high absorption capacities discussed above, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] outperforms the high performing adsorbents currently known. For example, the adsorption capacity for Cu²⁺ exhibited by LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is much higher than highly performing sorbents, namely MoS₄-LDH (181 mg/g), PANI-PS (171 mg/g), KMS-1 (156 mg/g), and SX-LDH (127 mg/g). Additionally, as can be seen in Table 6, the maximum adsorption capacity for Ag⁺ exhibited by LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is exceptionally high when compared to other top materials such as Ni/Fe/Ti—MoS₄-LDH (856 mg/g), Mn—MoS₄ (564 mg/g), MoS₄-LDH (550 mg/g), MoS₄-ppy (480 mg/g at pH ˜5), and Mo₃S₁₃-Ppy (408 mg/g). Regarding Cd²⁺, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] exhibited a maximum adsorption capacity higher than any of the high performing Cd²⁺ adsorbents listed in Table 7 and comparable to KTS-3. The maximum capture capacity achieved for Pb²⁺ exceeds the capacities exhibited by the comparable materials of Table 7. The maximum Hg²⁺ removal capacity exhibited by LDH-[Sn₂S₆] was also higher than any of the comparable materials of Table 6. The results of Table 6 and the comparison detailed in Table 7 suggest that LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is a unique adsorbent that outperforms for the sorption of a large number of heavy metals cations.

TABLE 7 q_(m) Cation Adsorbents (mg/g) Source Cu²⁺ LDH-[Sn₂S₆] 378 — MoS₄-LDH 181 Ma et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (2016) PEI-modified 92 Deng et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 biomass (2005) TA-HTC 81 Anirudhan et al., Appl. Clay Sci. 42 (2008) H100-LDH 85 González et al., Chem. Eng. J. 269 (2015) EDTA-LDH 71 Luo et al., Chem. Eng. 4 (2016) Fe—MoS₄ 117 Jawad et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) Sx-LDH 127 Ma et al., J. Mat. Chem. 2 (2014) PANI-PS 171 Alcaraz-Espinoza et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7 (2015) KMS-1 156 Li et al., J. Mol. Liq. 200 (2014) LDH-[Sn₂S₆] 978 — Mo₃S₁₃-ppy 408 Yuan et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142 (2020) Ni/Fe/Ti—MoS₄- 856 Rathee et al., RSC Adv. 10 (2020) LDH Mn—MoS₄ 564 Ali et al., Chem. Eng. J. 332 (2018) Ag⁺ MoS₄-Ppy 480 (pH ≈ 5) Xie et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018) 725 (pH ≈ 1) MoS₄-LDH 450 Ma et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (2016) Sx-LDH 383 Ma et al., J. Mat. Chem. 2 (2014) KMS-2 408 Fard et al., Chem. Mater. 27 (2015) Fe—MoS₄ 565 Jawad et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) Cd² LDH-[Sn₂S₆] 332 — DPA-LDH 258 Asiabi et al., Chem. Eng. J. 323 (2017) Biomass based 161 Zhang et al., Sci. Rep, 10 (2020) hydrogel NH₂- 177 Wang et al., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 56 Functionalized (2017) Zr-MOFs Polysulfide-LDH 57 Ma et al., J. Mat. Chem. 2 (2014). Pb²⁺ LDH-[Sn₂S₆] 579 — MOF/polydopamine 394 Sun et al., ACS Cent. Sci. 4 (2018) MoS₄-LDH 290 Ma et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (2016) Mn—MoS₄ 357 Ali et al., Chem. Eng. J. 332 (2018) Fe—MoS₄ 345 Jawad et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) EDTA-LDH 180 Ogawa et al, Chem. Lett. 33(2004). Cellulose based 240 Alatalo et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces charcogel 7 (2015) Biomass based 422.7 Zhang et al., Sci. Rep, 10 (2020) hydrogel Hg²⁺ LDH-[Sn₂S₆] 666 — MoS₄-LDH 500 Ma et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (2016) Mn—MoS₄ 594 Ali et al., Chem. Eng. J. 332 (2018) Fe—MoS₄ 582 Jawad et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) MOF/PDA 1634 Sun et al., ACS Cent. Sci. 4 (2018) KMS-2 297 Fard et al., Chem. Mater. 27 (2015) MoS₄-Ppy 210 Xie et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018) KMS-1 377 Manos et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 19 (2009)

Example 7

After the experiments of the previously introduced Example 1 were conducted, the solid sorbents were collected, dried, and analyzed by SEM-EDS, XRD, and XPS. SEM images (see FIGS. 8A-10E) show that retention of the plate-like hexagonal morphology of the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] crystallites is related to the concentrations of the M^(n+). For example, after treating the samples at concentrations of about 10 ppm and about 100 ppm, the adsorbates seem to maintain the plate-like morphology, as shown in FIGS. 8A-8E and FIGS. 9A-9E, respectively. This may indicate that the layered structure still dominates after cation sorption. In contrast, at concentrations of about 1500 ppm of M^(n+), the plate-like morphology of the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is absent, as shown in FIGS. 10A-10E. Instead, the SEM images show the formation of aggregated nanoparticles. EDS analyses of LDH-Sn₂S₆ treated with M^(n+) show that the quantity of the metal cation increases with the increase of the initial concentrations of the respective metal ions.

Tables 8-12 below detail the atomic compositions of the LDH-Sn₂S₆ at concertation after the adsorption of 10, 100 and 1500 ppm of solutions spiked with the respective ions. Specifically, Table 8 details the atomic compositions of the LDH-Sn₂S₆ at concertation after the adsorption of 10, 100 and 1500 ppm of Cu²⁺ spiked solutions. Table 9 details the atomic compositions of the LDH-Sn₂S₆ at concertation after the adsorption of 10, 100 and 1500 ppm of Ag⁺ spiked solutions. Table 10 details the atomic compositions of the LDH-Sn₂S₆ at concertation after the adsorption of 10, 100 and 1500 ppm of Cd²⁺ spiked solutions. Table 11 details the atomic compositions of the LDH-Sn₂S₆ at concertation after the adsorption of 10, 100 and 1500 ppm of Pb²⁺ spiked solutions, and Table 12 details the atomic compositions of the LDH-Sn₂S₆ at concertation after the adsorption of 10, 100 and 1500 ppm of Hg²⁺ spiked solutions.

TABLE 8 10 ppm 100 ppm 1500 ppm Atom Atom % Atom % Atom % Mg 40.54 38.97 22.74 Al 30.01 24.85 18.40 S 17.87 20.41 10.42 Cu 2.69 8.50 42.38 Sn 8.90 7.27 6.06 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

TABLE 9 10 ppm 100 ppm 1500 ppm Atom Atom % Atom % Atom % Mg 43.73 38.26 9.01 Al 30.98 31.06 10.27 S 16.77 15.09 14.52 Ag 1.41 8.09 61.21 Sn 7.11 7.49 4.99 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

TABLE 10 10 ppm 100 ppm 1500 ppm Atom Atom % Atom % Atom % Mg 42.72 44.81 15.10 Al 34.42 24.52 14.24 S 16.14 16.80 17.75 Cd 1.37 7.91 44.30 Sn 5.63 5.96 8.62 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

TABLE 11 10 ppm 100 ppm 1500 ppm Atom Atom % Atom % Atom % Mg 42.58 44.79 20.62 Al 29.53 27.62 24.72 S 17.63 14.18 10.77 Pb 1.10 7.87 30.43 Sn 9.16 5.54 13.46 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

TABLE 12 10 ppm 100 ppm 1500 ppm Atom Atom % Atom % Atom % Mg 42.41 23.97 18.60 Al 30.93 33.44 9.36 S 14.37 25.93 24.11 Sn 10.15 9.60 4.76 Hg 2.14 7.05 43.18 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

The adsorption of M^(n+) was achieved at different concentrations in the range of about 100 ppb to about 1500 ppm. As detailed in Tables 8-12, at a concentration of about 100 ppb, the basal space of post-adsorbed LDH-[Sn₂S₆] expands from about 1.08 nm to about 1.10 nm for Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ and to about 1.09 nm for Ag⁺, Cu²⁺ and Hg²⁺. This suggests that, at such an extremely low concentration, the interlayer Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻ anions holds the M^(n+) cations and the structure of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] dominates.

FIG. 11 generally shows X-ray powder diffraction patterns of M^(n+) sorbed LDH-Sn₂S₆ at 100 ppm showing the presence of 003 and 006 planes of at 0.91 and 0.45 nm, meaning the regeneration of LDH-NO₃. The symbols used in the graph of FIG. 11 generally correspond to .HgSO₄, ×CdS, PbS, HgS; .Cd₂(OH)₂SO₄; and *CuSO₄; CdSO₄, and PbSO₄. At 10 ppm of the M^(n+) solutions, the (003) Bragg peak shifts from 1.08 to ˜0.91 nm which is equivalent to that of the LDH-NO₃. The shift shown in the graphical representation of the X-ray powder diffraction patterns of M^(n+) sorbed LDH-Sn₂S₆ suggests that, at this concentration, the LDH-NO₃ regenerates by the exchange of Sn₂S₆ anions. The nitrate anions are present in solution as the anion of the M^(n+) salts used adsorption study. The presence of the (00l) peaks in the XRD diffraction patterns of the 100 ppm M^(n+) adsorbed samples shows that they keep the nitrate intercalated LDH structure. SEM images confirm the retention of the hexagonal morphology of the crystallites at these concentrations. XRD patterns of the M^(n+) adsorbed samples at concentrations ≥1000 ppm show the absence of the layered structures of LDH. This may suggest that the LDH structure does not sustain at such extremely high metal concentrations.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was conducted to determine the surface compositions and the chemical states of the post-adsorbed samples from 100 ppm solutions of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺. XPS of the Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ adsorbed samples show the presence of these metals. For the Cu²⁺ adsorbed sample, the XPS results illustrated in FIG. 12 show the bands centered at about 932.3 eV and about 952.5 eV, which correspond to the Cu 2p energy of the LDH-[Sn₂S₆]. For the Ag⁺ adsorbed sample shown in FIG. 13, two bands centered at about 368.2 eV and about 374.11 eV can be assigned to Ag 3d^(5/2) and 3d^(3/2), respectively. Referring to FIG. 14, the bands centered at about 404.6 eV and about 406.1 eV correspond to Cd 3d^(5/2) and 3d^(3/2) obtained from the Cd²⁺ adsorbed sample. For the Pb²⁺ adsorbed sample shown in FIG. 15, deconvolution of the peaks shows bands centered at about 137.67 eV/about 139.10 eV and about 142.50 eV/about 143.95 eV, respectively. These peaks originate from the 4f^(7/2) and 4f^(5/2) binding energies of Pb²⁺. The energies of about 137.67 eV and about 142.50 eV (4f^(7/2) and 4f^(5/2)) correspond to the Pb²⁺ of PbS, while the energies of above 139.10 eV and about 143.95 eV may originate from the 4f^(7/2) and 4f^(5/2) of Pb²⁺ with a different chemical environment, probably in the vicinity of the oxides. The Hg²⁺-adsorbed sample shown in FIG. 16 shows binding energies at about 100.51 eV and about 104.60 eV, which can be assigned as Hg 4f^(7/2) and 4f⁵², respectively.

All the post-adsorption samples revealed Sn 3d bands in the range of about 483 eV to about 495 eV. Deconvolution of the Sn 3d bands of Cu and Cd adsorbed samples yielded two sets of energy bands at about 484.76 eV/about 493.21 eV and about 486.29 eV/about 494.67 eV for Cu and at about 486.12 eV/about 494.46 eV and about 487.26 eV/about 495.71 eV for Cd. For the Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ adsorbed samples, only one set of bands of Sn 3d (3d^(5/2), 3d^(3/2)) was observed. These bands are centered at about 486.61 eV/about 495.06 eV for Ag⁺, at about 486.88 eV/about 495.2 eV for Pb²⁺, and at about 486.65 eV/about 495.07 eV for Hg²⁺. The deviation of the binding energy of Sn 3d can be attributed to the diverse chemical environment of Sn⁴⁺ cations. Moreover, the deconvoluted spectra of S 2p of the post adsorptions samples exhibit the binding energies of about 161.45 eV and about 162.65 eV for Cu²⁺, about 161.86 eV and about 163.08 eV for Ag⁺, about 161.52 eV and about 162.70 eV for Cd²⁺, about 161.01 eV and about 162.23 eV for Pb²⁺, and about 161.82 eV and about 163.07 for Hg²⁺. These values are shifted from the S 2p peaks of the pristine LDH-[Sn₂S₆] with the binding energies in the range of about 158.16 eV to about 161.54 eV. These results suggest that there is a notable change in the electronic states possibly attributed to the partial oxidation of S²⁻ and/formation of metal-sulfides.

Example 8

To assess the effects of the high concentrations of the cations and anions as well as the feasibility of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] to use for wastewater treatment, the heavy metal uptake kinetics, selectivity, and efficiencies for tap and Mississippi river water were studied. The results are detailed in Table 7 below. The experiments utilized about 0.01 g of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] and a volume of water of about 10 mL, resulting in v/m=1000 mL/g. The pH for the samples of the experiment was about 7.

To perform this experiment, tap water was spiked with a mixture of Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ at a concentration of 1 ppm, (1000 ppb; 8000 ppb in total). Water was also collected from the Mississippi River near Louisiana. It was determined that the water included the presence of major background ions of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻, CO₃ ²⁻, SO₄ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻ and others, as well as a variety of organic species

Regarding the tap water, this experiment revealed LDH-[Sn₂S₆] as an extremely efficient adsorbent for the concurrent removal of Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Hg²⁺. More precisely, in tap water, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] can remove over 99.5% of Ag^(t), Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ in less than one minute. This rapid removal of cytotoxic Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ led to final concentrations of each cation of ≤5 ppb in less than one minute. After five minutes, the removal capacity increased to 99.8% for Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺, resulting in a final concentration of each cations as low as ≤2 ppb with K_(d) values remaining in the range of about 10⁵ mL/g to about 10⁷ mL/g. In comparison to Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺, the Cu²⁺ was less selective and took about 15 minutes to reduce its concentration down to about 2 ppb. Hence, the selectivity order that can be determined from the results of this Example 8 regarding tap water is Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺<<Cu²⁺<Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺<Pb²⁺, Ag⁺. A graph of the concurrent adsorption kinetics curves of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Hg²⁺ obtained in the tap water sample is shown in FIG. 17A.

The results of application of the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] material to the Mississippi River water found that in mixed-ion states of Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ at concentrations of 1000 ppb for each (8000 ppb in total), LDH-[Sn₂S₆] is an excellent adsorbent for the simultaneous capture of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ and reduces concentrations from ppm to ppb level in only five min, which satisfied the safe drinking water limits defined by the US, the EPA, and the WHO. In contrast, the adsorption kinetics of Cd²⁺ was relatively slow. After about 3 hours of interactions at mixed-states, the residual concentrations of cadmium ion reach below one ppb. The results detailed in Table 13 indicated that the selectivity order for the heavy metal cations of Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, Ag⁺ for the Mississippi River water is Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺<<Cd²⁺<Cu²⁺, Hg²⁺<Pb²⁺, Ag⁺. A graph of the concurrent adsorption kinetics curves of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Hg²⁺ obtained in the Mississippi River water sample is shown in FIG. 17B.

TABLE 13 Tap Water Mississippi River Water Mixed- Time C_(i) C_(f) Removal K_(d) C_(f) Removal K_(d) ions (min) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) Co²⁺ <1 1.0 0.8080 19.13 2.4 × 10² 0.9979  0.21 2.10 5 1.0 0.6880 31.17 4.5 × 10² 0.9501  4.99 5.3 × 10¹ Ni²⁺ <1 1.0 0.9990 0.06  6.0 × 10⁻¹ 0.9573  4.27 4.5 × 10¹ 5 1.0 0.9150 8.51 9.3 × 10¹ 0.8961 10.39 1.2 × 10² Zn²⁺ <1 1.0 0.9990 0.002  2.0 × 10⁻² 0.9913  0.87 8.8  5 1.0 0.8650 13.48 1.5 × 10² 0.9902  0.98 9.9  Cu²⁺ <1 1.0 0.2380 76.21 3.2 × 10³ 0.0163 98.37 6.0 × 10⁴ 5 1.0 0.0130 98.74 7.8 × 10⁴ 0.0050 99.50 2.0 × 10⁵ 15 1.0 0.0020 99.77 4.4 × 10⁵ 0.0062 99.38 1.6 × 10⁵ Ag⁺ <1 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0070 99.30 1.4 × 10⁵ 5 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0003 99.97 3.3 × 10⁶ 15 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ Cd²⁺ <1 1.0 0.0040 99.62 2.6 × 10⁵ 0.0985 90.15 9.2 × 10³ 5 1.0 0.0020 99.80 5.0 × 10⁵ 0.0967 90.33 9.3 × 10³ 15 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0700 93.00 1.3 × 10⁴ 180 — — — — 0.0003 99.97 3.3 × 10⁶ Pb²⁺ <1 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0147 98.53 6.7 × 10⁴ 5 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0066 99.34 1.5 × 10⁵ 15 1.0 0.0001 99.99 1.0 × 10⁷ 0.0045 99.55 2.2 × 10⁵ 180 — — — — 0.0002 99.98 5.0 × 10⁶ Hg²⁺ <1 1.0 0.0049 99.51 2.0 × 10⁵ 0.0078 99.22 1.3 × 10⁵ 5 1.0 0.0012 99.87 7.9 × 10⁵ 0.0003 99.97 3.3 × 10⁶ 15 1.0 0.0008 99.92 1.2 × 10⁷ 0.0005 99.95 2.0 × 10⁶

Example 9

To evaluate regeneration and reusability, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] was investigated for the adsorption of the mixture of the solutions of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ in five consecutive cycles. These cycles were conducted using the total initial concentrations of 50 ppm of the mixed cations of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ with 10 ppm of each element for each cycle. Regeneration experiments were conducted using the 0.2 M EDTA as a complexing agent for heavy metals solutions after each cycle as described previously for Fe—MoS₄. The results of these cycles are detailed below in Table 14 and can be seen in the bar graph shown in FIG. 18.

TABLE 14 Consecutive Mixed- C_(i) C_(f) Removal K_(d) cycles cations (ppm) (ppm) (%) (mL/g) 1^(st) cycle Cu²⁺ 10 0.007 99.93 1.43 × 10⁶ Ag+ 10 0.002 99.98 5.00 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 0.001 99.99 1.00 × 10⁷ Pb²⁺ 10 0.001 99.99 1.00 × 10⁷ Hg²⁺ 10 0.002 99.98 5.00 × 10⁶ 2^(nd) cycle Cu²⁺ 10 0.127 98.73 7.76 × 10⁴ Ag+ 10 0.005 99.95 2.00 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 0.035 99.65 2.88 × 10⁵ Pb²⁺ 10 0.104 98.96 9.52 × 10⁴ Hg²⁺ 10 0.003 99.97 3.33 × 10⁶ 3^(rd) cycle Cu²⁺ 10 0.148 98.52 6.66 × 10⁴ Ag+ 10 0.007 99.93 1.43 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 0.037 99.63 2.71 × 10^(s) Pb²⁺ 10 0.149 98.51 6.61 × 10⁴ Hg²⁺ 10 0.004 99.96 2.50 × 10⁶ 4^(th) cycle Cu²⁺ 10 0.161 98.39 6.12 × 10⁴ Ag+ 10 0.008 99.92 1.25 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 0.182 98.18 5.39 × 10⁴ Pb²⁺ 10 0.223 97.77 4.39 × 10⁴ Hg²⁺ 10 0.006 99.94 1.67 × 10⁶ 5^(th) cycle Cu²⁺ 10 0.208 97.92 4.71 × 10⁴ Ag+ 10 0.008 99.92 1.25 × 10⁶ Cd²⁺ 10 0.329 96.71 2.94 × 10⁴ Pb²⁺ 10 0.972 90.28 9.29 × 10³ Hg²⁺ 10 0.008 99.92 1.25 × 10⁶

The results of Table 14 show that LDH-[Sn₂S₆] can efficiently remove Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ for a number of consecutive cycles. Notably, from the first through fifth cycles, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] removed over 99.9% of Ag⁺ and Hg²⁺ with K_(d) values of about 10⁶ mL/g. In contrast, during the fifth cycle, LDH-[Sn₂S₆] removed about 97.8% of Cu²⁺, about 96.7% of Cd²⁺, and about 90.3% of Pb²⁺ ions. These consecutive reuse experiments show that LDH-Sn₂S₆ remains efficient for the removal of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ even after five consecutive cycles.

To determine the leaching of Mg²⁺, Al³⁺ and Sn⁴⁺ from the solid LDH-[Sn₂S₆] sorbent to the solutions during the adsorption of heavy metal ions, the solutions were analyzed three hours after the sorption experiments of mixed solutions of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺ and Hg²⁺. Results of this analysis are detailed below in Table 15.

TABLE 15 Ions Mg²⁺ Al³⁺ Sn⁴⁺ Calculated concentrations of ions in the 145.8 83.4 18.5 solid LDH-Sn₂S₆ before the adsorption (ppm) Concentrations of ions in the solution 23.3 9.7 0.003 after the adsorption (ppm) Amount leached out into the solutions in 16% 11% 0.02% percent

Leaching of Sn⁴⁺ resulted in a final solution concentration of about 0.003 ppm, which is equivalent to about 0.02% of total Sn in the LDH-[Sn₂S₆] sorbent. Greater solution concentrations were observed for Mg²⁺ (about 23.3 ppm) and Al³⁺ (about 9.7 ppm) corresponding to about 16% and about 11%, respectively, of the total amounts of the ions in the solid matrix of LDH-[Sn₂S₆].

The Examples above generally illustrated that the intercalation of the thiostannate anion,

[Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻, into the interlayer space of the solid-state matrix of LDHs using the chemistry of ion-exchange at ambient conditions produces a highly efficient sorbent compared to current options. The soft polarizable Lewis basic characteristics of the sulfides (S²) of the thiostannate anions of LDH-[Sn₂S₆] exhibit tremendously high sorption and unprecedented selectivity for a wide number of Lewis acidic heavy metal cations, including those discussed in detail elsewhere herein. The adsorption phenomena for Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ can be demonstrated by the pseudo-second-order models which indicate a chemisorption process via metal sulfide bonds is involved the adsorption of M^(n+) cations. The metal ion adsorption mechanism mainly includes the formation of interlayered [M^(n+)Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻] complex and neutral metal-sulfides and depends on the M^(n+):LDH-Sn₂S₆ ⁴⁻ ratio.

This written description uses examples to disclose the invention, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the invention, including making and using any devices or systems and performing any incorporated methods. The patentable scope of the invention is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they include structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal languages of the claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A hybrid functionalized lamellar comprising: a layered double hydroxide; [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions intercalated with the gallery of the layered double hydroxide to form a [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide intercalated has a basal spacing of about 1 nm to about 1.10 nm.
 2. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the layered double hydroxide is MgAl-LDH.
 3. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide achieves greater than 99% removal of each of Cu²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ at a pH of about
 7. 4. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide has a chemical formula of Mg²⁺ _(1−x)Al³⁺ _(x)OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(y).0.8H₂O (x=0.1-0.9; y=0.01-0.6).
 5. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide has a chemical formula of Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(0.085).0.8H₂O.
 6. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions are formed from Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O.
 7. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions are intercalated with the gallery of the layered double hydroxide using the formula: Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(NO₃)_(0.34).0.8H₂O+0.085Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O→Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(0.085).0.8H₂O+0.34NaNO₃
 8. The hybrid functionalized lamellar of claim 1, wherein the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide is stable in air and water.
 9. A method of producing a [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ intercalated layered double hydroxide comprising: synthesizing MgAl-LDH-CO₃; synthesizing MgAl-LDH-NO₃ by the exchange of CO₃ ²⁻ anions by NO₃ anions; and synthesizing MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] by the exchange of NO₃ anions by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions.
 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising: obtaining white crystals of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O from a refrigerated solution of Na₂S.9H₂O and SnCl₄.5H₂O; filtering and washing the crystals of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O with acetone; and vacuum drying the crystals of Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O for about 24 hours.
 11. The method of claim 9, wherein synthesizing MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] by the exchange of NO₃ anions by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions includes: exchanging the [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions with the NO₃ anions in accordance with the equation Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(NO₃)_(0.34).0.8H₂O+0.085Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O→Mg_(0.66)Al_(0.34)(OH)₂(Sn₂S₆)_(0.085).0.8H₂O+0.34NaNO₃
 12. The method of claim 9, wherein synthesizing MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] by the exchange of NO₃ ⁻ anions by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions includes: dispersing MgAl-LDH-NO₃ and Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O in deionized water to form a mixture; stirring the mixture at ambient condition for about 24 hours; filtering the mixture; and retaining solids from the mixture separated by the filtering.
 13. The method of claim 9, wherein synthesizing MgAl-LDH-[Sn₂S₆] by the exchange of NO₃ anions by [Sn₂S₆]⁴⁻ anions includes: dispersing MgAl-LDH-NO₃ and Na₄Sn₂S₆.14H₂O in deionized water to form a mixture; stirring the mixture at ambient condition for about 24 hours; filtering the mixture; retaining solids from the mixture separated by the filtering; washing the solids with ethanol; and drying the solids at room temperature and pressure. 